CES 2011 Lanjutan

CISM Binus

Tugas Individu Mata Kuliah Managing Corporate Information System and Technology

Nama     :    Geraldy Jonathan Doodoh

NIM        :    1112200213

Halaman 53 No.4

• Yang membedakan kita dengan kompetitor serta pengganti adalah nilai lebih atau more value yang ada pada produk maupun service yang bisa berupa nilai dalam harga, segmen pelanggan, dan lebih radikal lagi adalah business models. 
• Yang sulit ketika pemain baru masuk kedalam pasar kita adalah subtitusi produk dan layanan karena bukan tidak mungkin permain tersebut memiliki segmentasi produk serta layanan yang berbeda dengan kita atau bisa jadi sama persis.
• Lebih sulit mengganti pemasok karena pada dasarnya pemasok merupakan rantai dari produksi suatu produk atau layanan dengan demikian bukanlah tidak mungkin akan terjadi perubahan dalam proses bisnis yang ada.

Halaman 79 No.3

• Ya tentu saja. Karena dengan mengidentifikasi dan memanajemen resiko yang ada dalam teknologi informasi akan membantu kita dalam menentukan produk, pasar, jaringan bisnis, posisi bisnis, serta menambah kapabilitas dalam bisnis yang ada.

Halaman 95 No.9

• Ya harus. Karena dengan menciptakan budaya dalam membagi nilai dan sifat dari sebuah organisasi dengan rekannya akan membentuk sebuah kolaborasi yang memiliki kekuatan bisnis tersendiri dan hal ini semata-mata untuk menuju pada tujuan bersama.

Halaman 119 No.8

• Dalam hal operasional TI diperusahaan saya berjalan selama 24 jam 365 hari non-stop dan 2 kali dalam seminggu dilakukan maintain untuk sistem yang ada.
• Untuk implementasi TI yang menyangkut bisnis biasanya rata-rata 2-6 bulan tergantung skala prioritas yang ada dengan pengeluaran yang bervariasi tergantung dari proyek TI itu sendiri.
• Yang menjadi kunci utama penyebab lambatnya implementasi inovasi TI dalam bisnis serta meningkatnya pengeluaran yaitu kurangnya sinkronisasi antara strategi, kapabilitas, dan nilai untuk TI itu sendiri.

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ITSM (Information Technology Service Management)

ITSM (Information Technology Service Management, Manajemen Layanan Teknologi Informasi) adalah suatu metode pengelolaan sistem teknologi informasi (TI) yang secara filosofis terpusat pada perspektif konsumen layanan TI terhadap bisnis perusahaan. ITSM merupakan kebalikan dari pendekatan manajemen TI dan interaksi bisnis yang terpusat pada teknologi. Istilah ITSM tidak berasal dari suatu organisasi, pengarang, atau pemasok tertentu dan awal penggunaan frase inipun tidak jelas kapan dimulainya. ITSM berfokus pada proses dan karenanya terkait dan memiliki minat yang sama dengan kerangka kerja dan metodologi gerakan perbaikan proses (seperti TQM, Six Sigma, Business Process Management, dan CMMI). Disiplin ini tidak memedulikan detil penggunaan produk suatu pemasok tertentu atau detil teknis suatu sistem yang dikelola, melainkan berfokus pada upaya penyediaan kerangka kerja untuk menstrukturkan aktivitas yang terkait dengan TI dan interaksi antara personil teknis TI dengan pengguna teknologi informasi. ITSM umumnya menangani masalah operasional manajemen teknologi informasi (kadang disebut operations architecture, arsitektur operasi) dan bukan pada pengembangan teknologinya sendiri. Contohnya, proses pembuatan perangkat lunak komputer untuk dijual bukanlah fokus dari disiplin ini, melainkan sistem komputer yang digunakan oleh bagian pemasaran dan pengembangan bisnis di perusahaan perangkat lunak-lah yang merupakan fokus perhatiannya. Banyak pula perusahaan non-teknologi, seperti pada industri keuangan, ritel, dan pariwisata, yang memiliki sistem TI yang berperan penting, walaupun tidak terpapar langsung kepada konsumennya. Sesuai dengan fungsi ini, ITSM sering dianggap sebagai analogi disiplin ERP pada TI, walaupun sejarahnya yang berakar pada operasi TI dapat membatasi penerapannya pada aktivitas utama TI lainnya seperti manajemen portfolio TI dan rekayasa perangkat lunak.

Kerangka Kerja 

Kerangka kerja (framework) yang dianggap dapat memberikan contoh penerapan ITSM di antaranya:

• Information Technology Infrastructure Library (ITIL)
• Control Objectives for Information and Related Technology (COBIT)
• Software Maintenance Maturity Model
• PRM-IT IBM's Process Reference Model for IT
• Application Services Library (ASL)
• Business Information Services Library (BISL)
• Microsoft Operations Framework (MOF)
• eSourcing Capability Model for Service Providers (eSCM-SP) dan eSourcing Capability Model for Client Organizations (eSCM-CL) dari ITSqc for Sourcing Management.

ITIL (Information Technology Infrastructure Library)

ITIL atau Information Technology Infrastructure Library adalah suatu rangkaian konsep dan teknik pengelolaan infrastruktur, pengembangan, serta operasi teknologi informasi (TI). ITIL diterbitkan dalam suatu rangkaian buku yang masing-masing membahas suatu topik pengelolaan TI. Nama ITIL dan IT Infrastructure Library merupakan merek dagang terdaftar dari Office of Government Commerce (OGC) Britania Raya. ITIL memberikan deskripsi detil tentang beberapa praktik TI penting dengan daftar cek, tugas, serta prosedur yang menyeluruh yang dapat disesuaikan dengan segala jenis organisasi TI. Walaupun dikembangkan sejak dasawarsa 1980-an, penggunaan ITIL baru meluas pada pertengahan 1990-an dengan spesifikasi versi keduanya (ITIL v2) yang paling dikenal dengan dua set bukunya yang berhubungan dengan ITSM (IT Service Management), yaitu Service Delivery (Antar Layanan) dan Service Support (Dukungan Layanan).

Pada 30 Juni 2007, OGC menerbitkan versi ketiga ITIL (ITIL v3) yang intinya terdiri dari lima bagian dan lebih menekankan pada pengelolaan siklus hidup layanan yang disediakan oleh teknologi informasi. Kelima bagian tersebut adalah:

1. Service Strategy
2. Service Design
3. Service Transition
4. Service Operation
5. Continual Service Improvement

Kelima bagian tersebut dikemas dalam bentuk buku, atau biasa disebut sebagai core guidance publications. Setiap buku dalam kelompok utama ini berisi:

1. Practice fundamentals – menjelaskan latar belakang tahapan lifecycle serta kontribusinya terhadap pengelolaan layanan TI secara keseluruhan.
2. Practice principles – menjelaskan konsep-konsep kebijakan serta tata kelola tahanan lifecycle yang menjadi acuan setiap proses terkait dalam tahapan ini.
3. Lifecycle processes and activities – menjelaskan berbagai proses maupun aktivitas yang menjadi kegiatan utama tahapan lifecycle. Misalnya proses financial management dan demand management dalam tahapan Service Strategy.
4. Supporting organization structures and roles – proses-proses ITIL tidak akan dapat berjalan dengan baik tanpa defini roles dan responsibilities. Bagian ini menjelaskan semua aspek yang terkait dengan kesiapan model dan struktur organisasi.
5. Technology considerations – menjelaskan solusi-solusi otomatisasi atau software ITIL yang dapat digunakan pada tahapan lifecycle, serta persyaratannya.
6. Practice Implementation – berisi acuan/panduan bagi organisasi TI yang ingin mengimplementasikan atau yang ingin meningkatkan proses-proses ITIL.
7. Complementary guideline – berisi acuan model-model best practice lain selain ITIL yang dapat digunakan sebagai referensi bagian tahapan lifecycle.
8. Examples and templates – berisi template maupun contoh-contoh pengaplikasian proses.

Di samping buku-buku dalam core guidance publications, ada juga complementary guidance. Dimana buku-buku dalam kategori nantinya dimaksudkan untuk memberikan model, acuan dan panduan bagi penerapan ITIL pada sektor-sektor tertentu seperti jenis industri tertentu, tipe organisasi serta arsitektur teknologi. Dengan demikian, ITIL akan dapat lebih diterima serta diadaptasi sesuai dengan lingkungan serta behaviour dari setiap organisasi TI.

Siklus Layanan ITIL

Kelima bagian ITIL yang seperti tersebut di atas biasanya disebut juga sebagai bagian dari sebuah siklus. Dikenal pula dengan sebutan Sikuls Layanan ITIL. Secara singkat, masing-masing bagian dijelaskan sebagai berikut :

A. Service Strategy 

Inti dari ITIL Service Lifecycle adalah Service Strategy. Service Strategy memberikan panduan kepada pengimplementasi ITSM pada bagaimana memandang konsep ITSM bukan hanya sebagai sebuah kemampuan organisasi (dalam memberikan, mengelola serta mengoperasikan layanan TI), tapi juga sebagai sebuah aset strategis perusahaan. Panduan ini disajikan dalam bentuk prinsip-prinsip dasar dari konsep ITSM, acuan-acuan serta proses-proses inti yang beroperasi di keseluruhan tahapan ITIL Service Lifecycle. Topik-topik yang dibahas dalam tahapan lifecycle ini mencakup pembentukan pasar untuk menjual layanan, tipe-tipe dan karakteristik penyedia layanan internal maupun eksternal, aset-aset layanan, konsep portofolio layanan serta strategi implementasi keseluruhan ITIL Service Lifecycle. Proses-proses yang dicakup dalam Service Strategy, di samping topik-topik di atas adalah:

1. Service Portfolio Management
2. Financial Management
3. Demand Management

Bagi organisasi TI yang baru akan mengimplementasikan ITIL, Service Strategy digunakan sebagai panduan untuk menentukan tujuan/sasaran serta ekspektasi nilai kinerja dalam mengelola layanan TI serta untuk mengidentifikasi, memilih serta memprioritaskan berbagai rencana perbaikan operasional maupun organisasional di dalam organisasi TI. Bagi organisasi TI yang saat ini telah mengimplementasikan ITIL, Service Strategy digunakan sebagai panduan untuk melakukan review strategis bagi semua proses dan perangkat (roles, responsibilities, teknologi pendukung, dll) ITSM di organisasinya, serta untuk meningkatkan kapabilitas dari semua proses serta perangkat ITSM tersebut.

B. Service Design 

Agar layanan TI dapat memberikan manfaat kepada pihak bisnis, layanan-layanan TI tersebut harus terlebih dahulu di desain dengan acuan tujuan bisnis dari pelanggan. Service Design memberikan panduan kepada organisasi TI untuk dapat secara sistematis dan best practice mendesain dan membangun layanan TI maupun implementasi ITSM itu sendiri. Service Design berisi prinsip-prinsip dan metode-metode desain untuk mengkonversi tujuan-tujuan strategis organisasi TI dan bisnis menjadi portofolio/koleksi layanan TI serta aset-aset layanan, seperti server, storage dan sebagainya. Ruang lingkup Service Design tidak melulu hanya untuk mendesain layanan TI baru, namun juga proses-proses perubahan maupun peningkatan kualitas layanan, kontinyuitas layanan maupun kinerja dari layanan. Proses-proses yang dicakup dalam Service Design yaitu:

1. Service Catalog Management
2. Service Level Management
3. Supplier Management
4. Capacity Management
5. Availability Management
6. IT Service Continuity Management
7. Information Security Management

C. Service Transition 

Service Transition menyediakan panduan kepada organisasi TI untuk dapat mengembangkan serta kemampuan untuk mengubah hasil desain layanan TI baik yang baru maupun layanan TI yang diubah spesifikasinya ke dalam lingkungan operasional. Tahapan lifecycle ini memberikan gambaran bagaimana sebuah kebutuhan yang didefinisikan dalam Service Strategy kemudian dibentuk dalam Service Design untuk selanjutnya secara efektif direalisasikan dalam Service Operation. Proses-proses yang dicakup dalam Service Transition yaitu:

1. Transition Planning and Support
2. Change Management
3. Service Asset & Configuration Management
4. Release & Deployment Management
5. Service Validation
6. Evaluation
7. Knowledge Management

D. Service Operation 

Service Operation merupakan tahapan lifecycle yang mencakup semua kegiatan operasional harian pengelolaan layanan-layanan TI. Di dalamnya terdapat berbagai panduan pada bagaimana mengelola layanan TI secara efisien dan efektif serta menjamin tingkat kinerja yang telah diperjanjikan dengan pelanggan sebelumnya. Panduan-panduan ini mencakup bagaiman menjaga kestabilan operasional layanan TI serta pengelolaan perubahan desain, skala, ruang lingkup serta target kinerja layanan TI. Proses-proses yang dicakup dalam Service Transition yaitu:

1. Event Management
2. Incident Management
3. Problem Management
4. Request Fulfillment
5. Access Management

E. Continual Service Improvement 

Continual Service Improvement (CSI) memberikan panduan penting dalam menyusun serta memelihara kualitas layanan dari proses desain, transisi dan pengoperasiannya. CSI mengkombinasikan berbagai prinsip dan metode dari manajemen kualitas, salah satunya adalah Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) atau yang dikenal sebagi Deming Quality Cycle

The Eight Essential Elements

ITIL FUNCTIONS & PROCESSES - Figure A

As stated above, some ITIL processes are essential to every IT organization because you’re doing them regardless of whether you have an efficient process in place to help you or not. Let’s take stock now of the essential ITIL processes and why they’re essential to IT Service Management success.

If you compare the bullet list that follows to the list of ITIL v3 functions and processes in Figure A you’ll quickly see that, while it’s obvious that some of these processes are clearly essential to ITSM, it is difficult to decide exactly which processes and functions to include because there are many sub-processes in v3. Figure A illustrates the large range of elements that need to be addressed from the v3 perspective.

Leveraging the collective ITIL guidance with an eye toward “first steps” and foundational aspects, here are the eight essential ITSM processes that are required by all IT departments:

1. Service Desk
2. Event Management
3. Problem Management
4. Service Asset & Configuration Management
5. Change Management
6. Incident Management
7. Request Fulfillment
8. Release & Deployment Management

Recent research supports calling these processes out as essential. For example, the IT Process Institute, in its research on Identifying Key Performance Drivers, found seven sets of control practices that predict top levels of performance. From highest to lowest impact, they are:

• Release scheduling and rollback (Release & Deployment Management)
• Process culture
• Pre-release testing (Change Management)
• Process exception management (Incident Management and Problem Management)
• Standardized configuration strategy (Service Asset & Configuration Management)
• Change linkage (Change Management)
• Controlled production access

Looking at these control practices you can see that most of them map closely to five of the ITIL essentials. Process culture is a management initiative and not an ITIL element per se, and therefore is not covered by the essential elements. This leaves Controlled Production Access, which the essential ITIL processes will contribute by highlighting and supporting resolution of various security issues, as well as ensuring that new services are secure. Similarly, the eight ITIL essentials encompass much of what is in the ITIL Service Transition and Service Operation phases, which have been well-quantified in terms of their impact to IT performance.

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Knowledge management

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Knowledge Management (KM) comprises a range of strategies and practices used in an organization to identify, create, represent, distribute, and enable adoption of insights and experiences. Such insights and experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in individuals or embedded in organizational processes or practice.

An established discipline since 1991 (see Nonaka 1991), KM includes courses taught in the fields of business administration, information systems, management, and library and information sciences (Alavi & Leidner 1999). More recently, other fields have started contributing to KM research; these include information and media, computer science, public health, and public policy.

Many large companies and non-profit organizations have resources dedicated to internal KM efforts, often as a part of their 'business strategy', 'information technology', or 'human resource management' departments (Addicott, McGivern & Ferlie 2006). Several consulting companies also exist that provide strategy and advice regarding KM to these organizations.

Knowledge Management efforts typically focus on organizational objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, integration and continuous improvement of the organization. KM efforts overlap with organizational learning, and may be distinguished from that by a greater focus on the management of knowledge as a strategic asset and a focus on encouraging the sharing of knowledge.

History

KM efforts have a long history, to include on-the-job discussions, formal apprenticeship, discussion forums, corporate libraries, professional training and mentoring programs. More recently, with increased use of computers in the second half of the 20th century, specific adaptations of technologies such as knowledge bases, expert systems, knowledge repositories, group decision support systems, intranets, and computer supported cooperative work have been introduced to further enhance such efforts.

In 1999, the term personal knowledge management was introduced which refers to the management of knowledge at the individual level (Wright 2005).

In terms of the enterprise, early collections of case studies recognized the importance of knowledge management dimensions of strategy, process, and measurement (Morey, Maybury & Thuraisingham 2002). Key lessons learned included: people, and the cultures that influence their behaviors, are the single most critical resource for successful knowledge creation, dissemination, and application; cognitive, social, and organizational learning processes are essential to the success of a knowledge management strategy; and measurement, benchmarking, and incentives are essential to accelerate the learning process and to drive cultural change. In short, knowledge management programs can yield impressive benefits to individuals and organizations if they are purposeful, concrete, and action-oriented.

More recently with the advent of the Web 2.0, the concept of Knowledge Management has evolved towards a vision more based on people participation and emergence. This line of evolution is termed Enterprise 2.0 (McAfee 2006). However, there is an ongoing debate and discussions (Lakhani & McAfee 2007) as to whether Enterprise 2.0 is just a fad that does not bring anything new or useful or whether it is, indeed, the future of knowledge management (Davenport 2008).

Research

KM emerged as a scientific discipline in the earlier 1990s. It was initially supported solely by practitioners, when Scandia hired Leif Edvinsson of Sweden as the world’s first Chief Knowledge Officer (CKO). Hubert Saint-Onge (formerly of CIBC, Canada), started investigating various sides of KM long before that. The objective of CKOs is to manage and maximize the intangible assets of their organizations. Gradually, CKOs became interested in not only practical but also theoretical aspects of KM, and the new research field was formed. The KM ideas taken up by academics, such as Ikujiro Nonaka (Hitotsubashi University), Hirotaka Takeuchi (Hitotsubashi University), Thomas H. Davenport (Babson College) and Baruch Lev (New York University). In 2001, Thomas A. Stewart, former editor at FORTUNE Magazine and subsequently the editor of Harvard Business Review, published a cover story highlighting the importance of intellectual capital of organizations. Since its establishment, the KM discipline has been gradually moving towards academic maturity. First, there is a trend towards higher cooperation among academics; particularly, there has been a drop in single-authored publications. Second, the role of practitioners has changed. Their contribution to academic research has been dramatically declining from 30% of overall contributions up to 2002, to only 10% by 2009 (Serenko et al. 2010).

A broad range of thoughts on the KM discipline exists with no unanimous agreement; approaches vary by author and school. As the discipline matures, academic debates have increased regarding both the theory and practice of KM, to include the following perspectives:

• Techno-centric with a focus on technology, ideally those that enhance knowledge sharing and creation.
• Organizational with a focus on how an organization can be designed to facilitate knowledge processes best.
• Ecological with a focus on the interaction of people, identity, knowledge, and environmental factors as a complex adaptive system akin to a natural ecosystem.

Regardless of the school of thought, core components of KM include People, Processes, Technology (or) Culture, Structure, Technology, depending on the specific perspective (Spender & Scherer 2007). Different KM schools of thought include various lenses through which KM can be viewed and explained, to include:

• community of practice (Wenger, McDermott & Synder 2001)
• social network analysis
• intellectual capital (Bontis & Choo 2002)
• information theory (McInerney 2002)
• complexity science
• constructivism (Nanjappa & Grant 2003)

The practical relevance of academic research in KM has been questioned (Ferguson 2005) with action research suggested as having more relevance (Andriessen 2004) and the need to translate the findings presented in academic journals to a practice (Booker, Bontis & Serenko 2008).

Dimensions

Different frameworks for distinguishing between knowledge exist. One proposed framework for categorizing the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge represents internalized knowledge that an individual may not be consciously aware of, such as how he or she accomplishes particular tasks. At the opposite end of the spectrum, explicit knowledge represents knowledge that the individual holds consciously in mental focus, in a form that can easily be communicated to others. (Alavi & Leidner 2001). Similarly, Hayes and Walsham (2003) describe content and relational perspectives of knowledge and knowledge management as two fundamentally different epistemological perspectives. The content perspective suggest that knowledge is easily stored because it may be codified, while the relational perspective recognizes the contextual and relational aspects of knowledge which can make knowledge difficult to share outside of the specific location where the knowledge is developed.

Early research suggested that a successful KM effort needs to convert internalized tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge in order to share it, but the same effort must also permit individuals to internalize and make personally meaningful any codified knowledge retrieved from the KM effort. Subsequent research into KM suggested that a distinction between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge represented an oversimplification and that the notion of explicit knowledge is self-contradictory. Specifically, for knowledge to be made explicit, it must be translated into information (i.e., symbols outside of our heads) (Serenko & Bontis 2004). Later on, Ikujiro Nonaka proposed a model (SECI for Socialization, Externalization, Combination, Internalization) which considers a spiraling knowledge process interaction between explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge (Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995). In this model, knowledge follows a cycle in which implicit knowledge is 'extracted' to become explicit knowledge, and explicit knowledge is 're-internalized' into implicit knowledge. More recently, together with Georg von Krogh, Nonaka returned to his earlier work in an attempt to move the debate about knowledge conversion forwards (Nonaka & von Krogh 2009).

A second proposed framework for categorizing the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes between embedded knowledge of a system outside of a human individual (e.g., an information system may have knowledge embedded into its design) and embodied knowledge representing a learned capability of a human body’s nervous and endocrine systems (Sensky 2002).

A third proposed framework for categorizing the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes between the exploratory creation of "new knowledge" (i.e., innovation) vs. the transfer or exploitation of "established knowledge" within a group, organization, or community. Collaborative environments such as communities of practice or the use of social computing tools can be used for both knowledge creation and transfer.

Strategies

Knowledge may be accessed at three stages: before, during, or after KM-related activities. Different organizations have tried various knowledge capture incentives, including making content submission mandatory and incorporating rewards into performance measurement plans. Considerable controversy exists over whether incentives work or not in this field and no consensus has emerged.

One strategy to KM involves actively managing knowledge (push strategy). In such an instance, individuals strive to explicitly encode their knowledge into a shared knowledge repository, such as a database, as well as retrieving knowledge they need that other individuals have provided to the repository. This is also commonly known as the Codification approach to KM.

Another strategy to KM involves individuals making knowledge requests of experts associated with a particular subject on an ad hoc basis (pull strategy). In such an instance, expert individual(s) can provide their insights to the particular person or people needing this (Snowden 2002). This is also commonly known as the Personalization approach to KM.

Other knowledge management strategies and instruments for companies include:

• rewards (as a means of motivating for knowledge sharing)
• storytelling (as a means of transferring tacit knowledge)
• cross-project learning
• after action reviews
• knowledge mapping (a map of knowledge repositories within a company accessible by all)
• communities of practice
• expert directories (to enable knowledge seeker to reach to the experts)
• best practice transfer
• knowledge fairs
• competence management (systematic evaluation and planning of competences of individual organization members)
• proximity & architecture (the physical situation of employees can be either conducive or obstructive to knowledge sharing)
• master-apprentice relationship
• collaborative technologies (groupware, etc.)
• knowledge repositories (databases, bookmarking engines, etc.)
• measuring and reporting intellectual capital (a way of making explicit knowledge for companies)
• knowledge brokers (some organizational members take on responsibility for a specific "field" and act as first reference on whom to talk about a specific subject)
• social software (wikis, social bookmarking, blogs, etc.)

Information Age

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The information age, also commonly known as the computer age or information era, is an idea that the current age will be characterized by the ability of individuals to transfer information freely, and to have instant access to knowledge that would have been difficult or impossible to find previously. The idea is linked to the concept of a digital age or digital revolution, and carries the ramifications of a shift from traditional industry that the industrial revolution brought through industrialization, to an economy based on the manipulation of information.

The information age formed by capitalizing on the computer microminiaturization advances, with a transition spanning from the advent of the personal computer in the late 1970s to the internet reaching a critical mass in the early 1990s, and the adoption of such technology by the public in the two decades after 1990. The Information Age has allowed rapid global communications and networking to shape modern society.

The Internet

The Internet was conceived as a fail-proof network that could connect computers together and be resistant to any one point of failure; the Internet cannot be totally destroyed in one event, and if large areas are disabled, the information is easily rerouted. It was created mainly by DARPA; its initial software applications were e-mail and computer file transfer.

Though the Internet itself has existed since 1969, it was with the invention of the World Wide Web in 1989 by British scientist Tim Berners-Lee and its implementation in 1991 that the Internet truly became a global network. Today the Internet has become the ultimate platform for accelerating the flow of information and is, today, the fastest-growing form of media, and is pushing many, if not most, other forms of media into obsolescence.

Progression

The proliferation of the smaller and less expensive personal computers and improvements in computing power by the early 1980s resulted in a sudden access to and ability to share and store information for more and more workers. Connectivity between computers within companies led to the ability of workers at different levels to access greater amounts of information.

In the 1990s, the spread of the Internet caused a sudden leap in access to and ability to share information in businesses, at home and around the globe. Technology was developing so quickly, that a computer costing $3,000.00 in 1997, only cost $2000.00 two years later and the same caliber of machine cost only $1000.00 the following year.

Concurrently during the 1980s and 1990s in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Western Europe, there was a steady trend away from people holding Industrial Age manufacturing jobs. An increasing number of people held jobs as clerks in stores, office workers, teachers, nurses, etc. The industrial world was shifting into a service economy.

Eventually, Information and Communication Technology—computers, computerized machinery, fiber optics, communication satellites, Internet, and other ICT tools—became a significant part of the economy. Microcomputers were developed and many business and industries were greatly changed by ICT. Nicholas Negroponte captured the essence of these changes in his 1995 book, Being Digital.His book discusses similarities and differences between products made of atoms and products made of bits. In essence, one can very cheaply and quickly make a copy of a product made of bits, and ship it across the country or around the world both quickly and at very low cost.

The term has been noted as identifying an era when "ideas about the computer, the internet, or digital resources seem to influence policy decisions more than social concerns about access, privacy or preservation."Thus, the term "Information Age" is often applied in relation to the use of cell phones, digital music, high definition television, digital cameras, the Internet, cable TV, and other items that have come into common use in the past 30 years.